| Period |
Name |
Characteristics |
| 1836–1933 |
Dual federalism |
- States and national government are each sovereign and therefore equal
- Relations between them are characterized by tension rather than collaboration
- National government gains strength because of its role in promoting economic growth
|
| 1933–1961 |
Cooperative federalism |
- Federal, state, and local governments share responsibilities for almost all functions
- National government's powers grow steadily, especially regulatory power
|
| 1961–1969 |
Creative federalism |
- President Johnson emphasizes partnership of national government, states, cities, counties, school districts, and nonprofit organizations
- National government creates many new programs with many grants made directly to cities
|
| 1969–1977 |
New fiscal federalism |
- President Nixon emphasizes decentralization and revenue sharing
|
| 1977–1981 |
Partnership federalism |
- President Carter seeks to foster greater cooperation between states and national government while limiting new programs
|
| 1981–1989 |
New regulatory federalism |
- President Reagan emphasizes cutting back federal government's role and increasing efficiency;
- Revenue sharing ends
|
| 1989–1993 |
Coercive federalism |
- President Bush's use of unfunded mandates and preemption to influence state and local conduct
|
| 1993— |
Reinventing federalism |
- President Clinton emphasizes greater efficiency and responsiveness, with national government steering but state and local governments providing the motor
- National government limits on unfunded mandates and provides waivers to encourage state experimentation
|
Edwards, David V. and Alessandra Lippucci. 1998. Practicing American Politics: An Introduction to Government. New York: Worth Publishers, p. 96.